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410 U.S., at 162. as Amici Curiae 27, and n.14. As Justice Jackson (before becoming a Justice) wrote of that time: The older world of laissez faire was recognized everywhere outside the Court to be dead. The Struggle for Judicial Supremacy 85 (1941). The Virginia law in force in 1863 stated: Sec. Every person who shall administer to any woman pregnant with a child any medicine, drug, or substance whatever, or shall use or employ any instrument or other means, with intent thereby to destroy such child, unless the same shall have been necessary to preserve the life of such mother, or shall have been advised by two physicians to be necessary for such purpose, shall, in case the death of such child or of such mother be thereby produced, be deemed guilty of manslaughter in the second degree.86, Sec. See 591 U.S., at ______ (slip op., at 67); ante, at 59, 60, and n.53.10 We agree that the June Medical difference is a differencebut not one that would actually make a difference in the result of most cases (it did not in June Medical), and not one incapable of resolution were it ever to matter. And for that to happen, women must have control over their reproductive decisions. 13 See L. Harris, Navigating Loss of Abortion ServicesA Large Academic Medical Center Prepares for the Overturn of Roe v. Wade, 386 New England J. Med. Curious about what life is like for a student at Cornell Law? 1866) (same). 41 Other amicus briefs present arguments about the motives of proponents of liberal access to abortion. Stat., Art. "The Entrepreneurial State," Duke economist and historian of economics Joseph J. Spengler once warned, "lacks and probably will continue to lack the know-how, the moral integrity, the incentiveness, the capacity to give incentive, and the flexibility of economic behaviour requisite in a dynamic world" (Spengler, 1948). Our subsequent cases have continued to recognize the centrality of the viability rule. In Casey, the controlling opinion conceded that traditional reliance interests were not implicated because getting an abortion is generally unplanned activity, and reproductive planning could take virtually immediate account of any sudden restoration of state authority to ban abortions. 505 U.S., at 856. But the State never argued that we should grant review for that purpose. Some have argued that a fetus should not be entitled to legal protection until it acquires the characteristics that they regard as defining what it means to be a person. Among the characteristics that have been offered as essential attributes of personhood are sentience, self-awareness, the ability to reason, or some combination thereof.50 By this logic, it would be an open question whether even born individuals, including young children or those afflicted with certain developmental or medical conditions, merit protection as persons. But even if one takes the view that personhood begins when a certain attribute or combination of attributes is acquired, it is very hard to see why viability should mark the point where personhood begins. By taking sides, the Roe Court distorted the Nations understanding of this Courts proper role in the American constitutional system and thereby damaged the Court as an institution. Our cases have attempted to provide a framework for deciding when a precedent should be overruled, and they have identified factors that should be considered in making such a decision. View Guide Info. If viability was not an essential part of the rule adopted in Roe, the Court would have had no need to make that comparison. 6669. See, e.g., Obergefell v. Hodges, 576 U.S. 644 (2015) (overruling Baker v. Nelson); Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954) (overruling Plessy v. Ferguson); West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, 300 U.S. 379 (1937) (overruling Adkins v. Childrens Hospital of D.C. and in effect Lochner v. New York). Chicago-style source citations come in two varieties: (1) notes and bibliography and (2) author-date. In some sense, that is the difference in a nutshell between our precedents and the majority opinion. Compare Planned Parenthood of Blue Ridge v. Camblos, 155 F.3d 352, 383384 (CA4 1998), with Planned Parenthood of Ind. In some, the Court only partially modified or clarified a precedent. Oyez (pronounced OH-yay)a free law project from Cornells Legal Information Institute (LII), Justia, and Chicago-Kent College of Lawis a multimedia archive devoted to making the Supreme Court of the United States accessible to everyone. See, e.g., Ohio v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health, 497 U.S. 502 (1990); Hodgson v. Minnesota, 497 U.S. 417 (1990); Simopoulos v. Virginia, 462 U.S. 506 (1983); Planned Parenthood Assn. . Historical inquiries of this nature are essential whenever we are asked to recognize a new component of the liberty protected by the Due Process Clause because the term liberty alone provides little guidance. c16. Those numerous state laws collectively represent the sincere and deeply held views of tens of millions of Americans who continue to fervently believe that allowing abortions up to 24 weeks is far too radical and far too extreme, and does not sufficiently account for what Roe itself recognized as the States important and legitimate interest in protecting fetal life. See Ramos, 590 U.S., at ___ (opinion of Kavanaugh, J.) In short, Caseys stare decisis analysis rested in part on a predictive judgment about the future development of state laws and of the peoples views on the abortion issue. Toggle navigation. And eliminating that right, we need to say before further describing our precedents, is not taking a neutral position, as Justice Kavanaugh tries to argue. p. 233 (emphasis added and deleted). Be sure to check your assignment parameters to use the correct variety. The Court abandoned any reliance on a privacy right and instead grounded the abortion right entirely on the Fourteenth Amendments Due Process Clause. 7879. It allowed that States had tightened their abortion laws in the middle and late 19th century, id., at 139, but it implied that these laws might have been enacted not to protect fetal life but to further a Victorian social concern about illicit sexual conduct, id., at 148. None of the other decisions cited by Roe and Casey involved the critical moral question posed by abortion. The state law upheld had an exemption for minors demonstrating adequate maturity, whereas the ones struck down did not. See ante, at 3132 (asserting that recognizing a relationship among them, as addressing aspects of personal autonomy, would ineluctably license fundamental rights to illegal drug use [and] prostitution). I am not sure, for example, that a ban on terminating a pregnancy from the moment of conception must be treated the same under the Constitution as a ban after fifteen weeks. These legitimate interests justify Mississippis Gestational Age Act. 10. Brief for Lawyers Committee for Civil Rights Under Law et al. The viability line has nothing to do with advancing such permissible goals. See Appendix A, infra (listing state statutory provisions in chronological order).33 By 1868, the year when the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified, three-quarters of the States, 28 out of 37, had enacted statutes making abortion a crime even if it was performed before quickening.34 See ibid. See June Medical, 591 U.S. ___. 501 (c) (3) more. Stony Brook Law School: ABA-Accredited Juris Doctor And LL M Programs. 1861, ch. A law regulating abortion, like other health and welfare laws, is entitled to a strong presumption of validity. Heller v. Doe, 509 U.S. 312, 319. But the State still could not place an undue burdenor substantial obstaclein the path of a woman seeking an abortion. Id., at 878. For these reasons, we agree with the Casey plurality that conventional, concrete reliance interests are not present here. The court will be in parentheses. Repository: Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections. Indeed, when the Fourteenth Amendment was adopted, three quarters of the States made abortion a crime at all stages of pregnancy. for Cert. The Constitution makes no express reference to a right to obtain an abortion, but several constitutional provisions have been offered as potential homes for an implicit constitutional right. Ibid. The concurrence does not claim that the right to a reasonable opportunity to obtain an abortion is deeply rooted in this Nations history and tradition and implicit in the concept of ordered liberty. Glucksberg, 521 U.S., at 720721. Id., at 856. 1955) (13th-century treatise).25. Westlake, Ohio 44145. But times had changed. Like Roe, Casey grounded that right in the Fourteenth Amendments guarantee of liberty. That guarantee encompasses realms of conduct not specifically referenced in the Constitution: Marriage is mentioned nowhere in that document, yet the Court was no doubt correct to protect the freedom to marry against state interference. 505 U.S., at 847848. The only notable change we can see since Roe and Casey cuts in favor of adhering to precedent: It is that American abortion law has become more and more aligned with other nations. The majority makes this change based on a single question: Did the reproductive right recognized in Roe and Casey exist in 1868, the year when the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified? (And as we will later discuss, the presence of that continuing division provides more of a reason to stick with, than to jettison, existing precedent. 63 Compare id., at 623626 (majority opinion), with id., at 644645 (Alito, J., dissenting). Manuals for justices of the peace printed in the Colonies in the 18th century typically restated the common-law rule on abortion, and some manuals repeated Hales and Blackstones statements that anyone who prescribed medication unlawfully to destroy the child would be guilty of murder if the woman died. More legislative information, such as bills filed, Congressional reports, and other relevant information, can be found at Congress.gov. An even more glaring deficiency was Roes failure to justify the critical distinction it drew between pre- and post-viability abortions. See ante, at 47 ([T]he most important historical fact [is] how the States regulated abortion when the Fourteenth Amendment was adopted); see also ante, at 5, 16, and n. 24, 23, 25, 28. RespondentsJackson Womens Health Organization, an abortion clinic, and one of its doctorschallenged the Act in Federal District Court, alleging that it violated this Courts precedents establishing a constitutional right to abortion, in particular Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113, and Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pa. v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833. That means the Court may not overrule a decision, even a constitutional one, without a special justification. Gamble v. United States, 587 U.S. ___, ___ (2019) (slip op., at 11). Any person who shall administer to any pregnant woman any medicine, drug or substance whatever, or attempt by operation or any other method or means to produce an abortion or miscarriage upon such woman, shall be guilty of a felony, and, upon conviction thereof, shall be fined not more than two thousand ($2,000.00) Dollars, nor less than five hundred ($500.00) Dollars, or imprisoned in the penitentiary for a period of not less than one nor more than five years, or by both such fine and imprisonment in the discretion of the court trying the case., Sec. See Casey, 505 U.S., at 853; Gonzales v. Carhart, 550 U.S. 124, 171172 (2007) (Ginsburg, J., dissenting). See Art. Moreover, Hale and Blackstone (and many other authorities following them) asserted that even a pre-quickening abortion was unlawful and that, as a result, an abortionist was guilty of murder if the woman died from the attempt. The mission of the Multi-Disciplinary Library Collaborative (MLSCC) is to preserve and make available legal documents and other government materials. Where means of causing abortion are used for the purpose of saving the life of the woman, the surgeon or other person using such means is lawfully justified.107, Sec. It also contains an online journal as well as an occasional newspaper article. Go! The Court retained what it called Roes central holdingthat a State may not regulate pre-viability abortions for the purpose of protecting fetal lifebut it provided no principled defense of the viability line. 58, 6, 39 (1873) (expanding criminal liability for abortions by other means, including instruments). While the majority might wish it otherwise, Roe and Casey are the very opposite of obsolete constitutional thinking. Agostini v. Felton, 521 U.S. 203, 236 (1997) (quoting Casey, 505 U.S., at 857). The global trend, however, has been toward increased provision of legal and safe abortion care. The scheme Roe produced looked like legislation, and the Court provided the sort of explanation that might be expected from a legislative body. Joe Teknus 23, a student in the Appellate Criminal Defense Clinic, waits in front of the NYC courthouse to argue in front of the Appellate Division on behalf of a client. 2. Because the Due Process Clause speaks only to process, the Court has long struggled to define what substantive rights it protects. Timbs v. Indiana, 586 U.S. ___, ___ (2019) (Thomas, J., concurring in judgment) (slip op., at 2) (internal quotation marks omitted). v. Danforth, 428 U.S. 52, 74 (1976); that women give written consent after being informed of the status of the developing prenatal life and the risks of abortion, Akron, 462 U.S., at 442445; that women wait 24 hours for an abortion, id., at 449451; that a physician determine viability in a particular manner, Colautti, 439 U.S., at 390397; that a physician performing a post-viability abortion use the technique most likely to preserve the life of the fetus, id., at 397401; and that fetal remains be treated in a humane and sanitary manner, Akron, 462 U.S., at 451452. The weaknesses in Roes reasoning are well-known. Acts p. 65 (emphasis added). In a series of decisions, the Court had held unconstitutional public graduate schools exclusion of black students. If titles are long, shorten them for the in-text citation. Of course, it has provoked some disagreement among judges. Can such a judgment be made by a State? The majoritys response to these obvious points exists far from the reality American women actually live. 6366. Today the majority refuses to face the facts. Abortion presents a profound moral question. In sum, none of the cases the majority cites is analogous to todays decision to overrule 50- and 30-year-old watershed constitutional precedents that remain unweakened by any changes of law or fact. Search About LII. But whether a particular obstacle qualifies as substantial is often open to reasonable debate. So, the Court held, those choices belong to the individual, and not the government. The disruption of overturning Roe and Casey will therefore be profound. APA Citation Style . The question in Roe was whether there was any right to abortion in the Constitution. In that case, the Court noted that prior cases had stressed viability and reiterated that [v]iability is the critical point under Roe. Compare and research attorneys on LII. Archives 80, 183 (1652) (W. Browne ed. In all those ways, todays decision takes aim, we fear, at the rule of law. And if viability is meant to mark a line having universal moral significance, can it be that a fetus that is viable in a big city in the United States has a privileged moral status not enjoyed by an identical fetus in a remote area of a poor country? If Gigantic State University is located in one of those sixteen states, Steel could be charged. Her decision about abortion was central, in the same way, to her capacity to chart her lifes course. . About 18 percent of pregnancies in this country end in abortion, and about one quarter of American women will have an abortion before the age of 45.22 Those numbers reflect the predictable and life-changing effects of carrying a pregnancy, giving birth, and becoming a parent. But even if the State had not argued as much, it would not matter. as Amici Curiae 9. Every person who shall wilfully administer to any pregnant woman any medicine, drug, substance or thing whatever, or shall employ any instrument or other means whatever, with intent thereby to procure the miscarriage of any such woman, unless the same shall have been necessary to preserve the life of such woman, or shall have been advised by two physicians to be necessary for that purpose, shall, upon conviction, be punished by imprisonment in a county jail not more than one year, or by a fine not exceeding five hundred dollars, or by both such fine and imprisonment.77, Sec. Safe and effective abortifacients, moreover, are now readily available, particularly during those early stages. Together, Roe and Casey represent an error that cannot be allowed to stand. halted a political process that was moving in a reform direction and thereby, I believed, prolonged divisiveness and deferred stable settlement of the issue). . The Solicitor General argued that abandoning the viability line would leave courts and others with no continued guidance. Id., at 101. Accordingly, we should eliminate it from our jurisprudence at the earliest opportunity. We'll send it to you upon successful completion of your donation. In 1992, 19 years after Roe, Casey acknowledged the continuing dispute over Roe. Additionally, the APA Manual suggests seeking assistance from law school websites or law libraries. Casey, 505 U.S., at 995 (opinion of Scalia, J. First, this Court seriously erred in Roe in adopting viability as the earliest point at which a State may legislate to advance its substantial interests in the area of abortion. But when it comes to the interpretation of the Constitutionthe great charter of our liberties, which was meant to endure through a long lapse of ages, Martin v. Hunters Lessee, 1 Wheat. It is a history of women seeking illegal abortions in hotel rooms and home kitchens; of women trying to self-induce abortions by douching with bleach, injecting lye, and penetrating themselves with knitting needles, scissors, and coat hangers. 9. Especially important in this web of precedents protecting an individuals most personal choices were those guaranteeing the right to contraception. To the contrary, the American legal landscape in the decades after the Civil War was littered with bans on the sale of contraceptive devices. That is not true. See supra, at 4142. This overwhelming consensus endured until the day Roe was decided. We now turn to the concurrence in the judgment, which reproves us for deciding whether Roe and Casey should be retained or overruled. It suggests that the two decisions are hard for courts to implement, but cannot prove its case. Janus v. State, County, and Municipal Employees, 585 U.S. ___, ______. As just described, Roe and Casey invoked powerful state interests in that protection, operative at every stage of the pregnancy and overriding the womans liberty after viability. 5, 26 Stat. The Legal Information Institute (LII) at the Cornell Law School has a wealth of information available online. See 410 U.S., at 160. I have endeavored to do the same. Another was that the right was rooted in the First, Fourth, or Fifth Amendment, or in some combination of those provisions, and that this right had been incorporated into the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment just as many other Bill of Rights provisions had by then been incorporated. Without the ability to decide whether and when to have children, women could notin the way men took for granteddetermine how they would live their lives, and how they would contribute to the society around them. The Solicitor General suggests that overruling Roe and Casey would threaten the protection of other rights under the Due Process Clause. 5. ), but this Court has held that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment incorporates the great majority of those rights and thus makes them equally applicable to the States. But our decisions have held that the Due Process Clause protects two categories of substantive rights. & Ky., Inc. v. Adams, 937 F.3d 973, 985990 (CA7 2019), cert. Due to the development of new equipment and improved practices, the viability line has changed over the years. 1823); 2 T. Percival, The Works, Literary, Moral and Medical 430 (1807); see also Keown 3839 (collecting English authorities). The majority does not wish to talk about these matters for obvious reasons; to do so would both ground Roe and Casey in this Courts precedents and reveal the broad implications of todays decision. Others have suggested that support can be found in the Fourteenth Amendments Equal Protection Clause, but that theory is squarely foreclosed by the Courts precedents, which establish that a States regulation of abortion is not a sex-based classification and is thus not subject to the heightened scrutiny that applies to such classifications. The Courts decisions have held that the Due Process Clause protects two categories of substantive rightsthose rights guaranteed by the first eight Amendments to the Constitution and those rights deemed fundamental that are not mentioned anywhere in the Constitution. For example, multiple paragraphs were devoted to an account of the views and practices of ancient civilizations where infanticide was widely accepted. For reasons already explained, Roes constitutional analysis was far outside the bounds of any reasonable interpretation of the various constitutional provisions to which it vaguely pointed. This Court cannot bring about the permanent resolution of a rancorous national controversy simply by dictating a settlement and telling the people to move on. Casey itself understood this point, as will become clear. as Amici Curiae 1214 (explaining financial and geographic barriers to access to effective contraceptives). Huge burdens are plainly substantial, and trivial ones are not, but in between these extremes, there is a wide gray area. They knew that the legitimacy of the Court [is] earned over time. Id., at 868. Why? They have passed laws without any exceptions for when the woman is the victim of rape or incest. One is the state of neonatal care at a particular point in time. The majority accuses Casey of acting outside the bounds of the law to quell the conflict over abortionof imposing an unprincipled settlement of the issue in an effort to end national division. Ante, at 67. Here, more than anywhere, the Court needs to apply the lawparticularly the law of stare decisis. & Ky., Inc. v. Commissioner of Ind. Our abortion precedents describe the right at issue as a womans right to choose to terminate her pregnancy. . And indeed, the majority comes close to conceding that point. And it has given rise to no more conflict in application than many standards this Court and others unhesitatingly apply every day. Thus, historical inquiries are essential whenever the Court is asked to recognize a new component of the liberty interest protected by the Due Process Clause. Compare Whole Womans Health v. Paxton, 10 F.4th 430, 447453 (CA5 2021), with EMW Womens Surgical Center, P.S.C. 103, 111123 (1985); A. Cameron, The Exposure of Children and Greek Ethics, 46 Classical Rev. Myron Taylor Hall Timbs and McDonald concerned the question whether the Fourteenth Amendment protects rights that are expressly set out in the Bill of Rights, and it would be anomalous if similar historical support were not required when a putative right is not mentioned anywhere in the Constitution. But that could not be true any longer: The State could not now insist on the historically dominant vision of the womans role. Id., at 852. 4141191(4)(b) (2018). What motivates one legislator to make a speech about a statute is not necessarily what motivates scores of others to enact it. Id., at 384. L. Rev. 8486 (2006) (Dellapenna); J. Keown, Abortion, Doctors and the Law 312 (1988) (Keown). Bankruptcy Procedure, Law A precedent of this Court is subject to the usual principles of stare decisis under which adherence to precedent is the norm but not an inexorable command. See supra, at 3, 3637. Creating materials that help people understand law. Todays decision strips women of agency over what even the majority agrees is a contested and contestable moral issue. Why, for example, does a State have no authority to regulate first trimester abortions for the purpose of protecting a womans health? able to and. Started in 1992, it was the first law site developed for the internet. The guides include overviews, cases, regulations, statutes, and secondary sources. Only then did the opinion conclude that the Framers and ratifiers of the Fourteenth Amendment counted the right to keep and bear arms among those fundamental rights necessary to our system of ordered liberty. Id., at 778; see also id., at 822850 (Thomas, J., concurring in part and concurring in judgment) (surveying history and reaching the same result under the Fourteenth Amendments Privileges or Immunities Clause). 1. Statutes serve as the fundamental framework for the laws of the United States. Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School Wex is a free legal dictionary and encyclopedia sponsored and hosted by the Legal Information Institute at the Cornell Law School. The viability line, Casey thought, was more workable than any other in marking the place where the womans liberty interest gave way to a States efforts to preserve potential life. 296297. There is no rule that parties can confine this Court to disposing of their case on a particular groundlet alone when review was sought and granted on a different one. But the Court must have a good reason to do so over and above the belief that the precedent was wrongly decided. Halliburton Co. v. Erica P. John Fund, Inc., 573 U.S. 258, 266 (2014). It was settled at the time of Roe, settled at the time of Casey, and settled yesterday that the Constitution places limits on a States power to assert control over an individuals body and most personal decisionmaking. (Or both.) 4141191 (2018), contains this central provision: Except in a medical emergency or in the case of a severe fetal abnormality, a person shall not intentionally or knowingly perform . The constitutional regime we enter today erases the womans interest and recognizes only the States (or the Federal Governments). Code 46 (1833) (same); 1867 Ill. Laws p. 89 (extending liability to abortions by means of any instrument[s] and raising penalties to imprisonment not less than two nor more than ten years). ); Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113, 177 (1973) (Rehnquist, J., dissenting); Doe v. Bolton, 410 U.S. 179, 222 (1973) (White, J., dissenting). It is only todays Court that endorses this profoundly mistaken view. And five Justices acceded to that cynical maneuver. Fresh new offerings from Cornell Wellness. 1953). 3269, 73 Stat. The concurrence would leave for another day whether to reject any right to an abortion at all, post, at 7, but another day would not be long in coming. We granted certiorari, 593 U.S. ___ (2021), to resolve the question whether all pre-viability prohibitions on elective abortions are unconstitutional, Pet. Although other legal dictionaries may provide a more general definition of a specific law, such as family law or contract law, Blacks Law Dictionary provides a comprehensive and accessible definition of that specific law. And although law review articles are not reticent about advocating new rights, the earliest article proposing a constitutional right to abortion that has come to our attention was published only a few years before Roe.23. The statutes appear in chronological order. Just as one example, an American woman is 14 times more likely to die by carrying a pregnancy to term than by having an abortion. Scouts honor. A thoughtful Member of this Court once counseled that the difficulty of a question admonishes us to observe the wise limitations on our function and to confine ourselves to deciding only what is necessary to the disposition of the immediate case. Whitehouse v. Illinois Central R. Co., 349 U.S. 366, 372373 (1955) (Frankfurter, J., for the Court). See Brief for Howard University School of Law Human and Civil Rights Clinic as Amicus Curiae 18. Casey similarly recognized the need to extend the constitutional sphere of liberty to a previously excluded group. 115 Dakota Penal Code 337 (1877) (codified at N.D. Rev. For example: In a recent article, John Doe argues that the sky is blue. 14, 1; see McDonald, 561 U.S., at 806 (opinion of Thomas, J.). Roes failure even to note the overwhelming consensus of state laws in effect in 1868 is striking, and what it said about the common law was simply wrong. The Court today properly heeds the constitutional principle of judicial neutrality and returns the issue of abortion to the people and their elected representatives in the democratic process. 17231724. We start with Roe and Casey, and with their deep connections to a broad swath of this Courts precedents. Four Justices reaffirmed Whole Womans Healths instruction to weigh a laws benefits against the burdens it imposes on abortion access. 591 U.S., at ___ (plurality opinion) (slip op., at 2) (internal quotation marks omitted). . See, e.g., Arizona Free Enterprise Clubs Freedom Club PAC v. Bennett, 564 U.S. 721, 748 (2011); Burdick v. Takushi, 504 U.S. 428, 433434 (1992); Pike v. Bruce Church, Inc., 397 U.S. 137, 142 (1970). The controlling opinion criticized and rejected Roes trimester scheme, 505 U.S., at 872, and substituted a new and obscure undue burden test. Casey itself thus directly contradicts any notion of absolute stare decisis in abortion cases. The Casey plurality tried to put meaning into the undue burden test by setting out three subsidiary rules, but these rules created their own problems. v. Strange, 3 F.4th 1240, 1269 (CA11 2021) (per curiam); June Medical Servs., L.L.C. 2021 (emphasis deleted and added). for Cert. See, e.g., Loving, 388 U.S. 1 (interracial couples); Turner v. Safley, 482 U.S. 78 (1987) (prisoners); see also, e.g., Stanley v. Illinois, 405 U.S. 645, 651652 (1972) (offering constitutional protection to untraditional family unit[s]).
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